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Proto-Efhang
<< Back to Conlangs :: << Back to North Nekturian Characteristics Proto-Efhang features several innovations regarding Northern Nekturian. *Words tend to become monosyllabic. Phonology Consonants Vowels Vowels are: Nekturian long vowels are changed to diphthongs. Morphology Nouns There are three gender of nouns: masculine, feminine and neuter. Nouns are declined according to three numbers: singular, dual and plural, and to six cases, viz.: #Nominative (subject) #Accusative (direct object) #Dative (indirect object) #Ablative #Genitive (possessive) #Locative Masculine Nouns | |} Feminine Nouns | |} Neuter Nouns | |} Adjectives Adjectives are declined exactly the same way as nouns. However, all adjectives receive a thematic vowel '-i' before the ending. E.g., mupfh-''' -> 'mupfh-i-'. mupfhi "new", "young" | | |} Kelmti "great" | | |} Comparative Form Superiority The suffix '-eyuli-' is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.: *'''kelmti "large", kelmteyuli "larger" *'mupfhi' "new", mupfheyuli "newer" *'punni' "good", punneyuli "better" Equality Inferiority Superlative The suffix '-eyðeyni-' is added to the stem of the adjective, resulting in a new adjective. Ex.: *'kelmti' "large", kelmteyðeyni "the largest" *'mupfhi' "new", mupfheyðeyni "the newest" *'punni' "good", punneyðeyni "the best" Pronouns Pronouns follow the same declension system used for nouns and adjectives, with little differences in some forms. Personal Although there are dual forms for all pronouns, they were not always used, plural forms being preferred. Dual forms were used mostly when the speaker wanted to emphasize the fact that the elements were exactly two. 1st and 2nd person pronouns have special forms, while the 3d person pronoun follows the regular noun endings. 1st and 2nd Person Pronuns | |} Possessive Possessive pronouns are declined like any other adjective. Demonstrative *'iðði' "this" (very near) *'histi' "this" (not so near) *'egîri' "that" (far) Interrogative *'ghiy' "what" *'ghawn' "who" *'goher' "which" *'gûneng' "how" *'hemtior' "where" *'gohemtuor' "when" Relative *'ghiy' "that" *'ghawn' "who" Indefinite *'herkonn' "some", "any" *'mameyhon' "no", "none" *'dutt' "all", "every" *'ghett' "each", "every" Numbers Cardinal Numbers *0 sawl *1 honn *2 tuweyddudz, -edz, -idz *3 delðes *4 gohedel *5 ðemgu *6 dziheyðes *7 ðawdi *8 uheydu *9 mufhi *10 tawððes *11 hontawð *12 tugueytawð *13 delðetawð *14 gohedeltawð *15 ðemgutawð *16 dziheydtawð *17 ðawditawð *18 uheydutawð *19 mûfhitawð *20 fhemdi *21 fhemdi honn *30 dlemde *40 gohelemde *50 ðeymgohemde *60 dziheyððemde *70 ðawdemde *80 uheydemde *90 mufhemde *100 ðawn Ordinal Numbers Ordinal numbers are regular adjectives. *1 belniheyli *2 ðîkemdi *3 delðîheyli *4 goheldi *5 ðemgemdi *6 dziheyðði *7 ðawdeyni *8 uheydepfhi *9 mufhimmi *10 tawððeyni Conjunctions Coordinating *'ghoye' "for" *'hiy', goy "and" *'mahen' "nor" *'ðawt', nez, bûlN "but" *'uho' "or" *'ihemted' "yet" *'eððeyna' "so" Correlative *'henpudz/edz/idz … hiy … ' "both … and … " *'uho … uho … ' "either … or … " *'mahen … mahen … ' "neither … nor … " *'mewu … ðat … ' "not … but … " *'meððu … denpen … ' "not only … but also … " Subordinating *'tibuheyd' "after" *'gemdot' "although" *'ðiy' "if" *'iððawd' "unless" *'ghîuk' "so that" *'beldemd' "therefore" *'hebbîsel' "in spite of", "despite" *'ghoye' "because" Verbs Concepts *'Voices': Active and Passive *'Moods': Indicative, Conditional *'Tenses': Present, Perfective, Aorist, Imperfective, Pluperfect, Future, Future Perfect *'Persons': 1st, 2nd and 3rd *'Numbers': Singular, Dual and Plural Each verb has a root that is expanded with a thematic vowel (e''', '''ey or i'). To this theme (root+vowel) are added tense and personal suffixes. E.g.: *'vher-e-ø-um->'vhereum' "I speak" (root, vowel, present tense indicative, 1st person singular) *'vher-e-fhe-nûdz'->'vherefhenûdz' "we were speaking" (root, vowel, past continuous indicative, 1st person plural) *'vher-e-ton-ka'->'vheretonka' "it was spoken" (root, vowel, aorist indicative passive, 3st person singular) Sample Conjugation: fheytiol "see" Here is the full conjugation of the verb fheyt-i-ol "see". For other verbs, just change the root (in this case, fheyt-''') and the thematic vowel (-i-''' in this case). Active Voice Indicative =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Conditional =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Participle =Present = *'fheyt-i-Mdiu' =Perfective = *'fheyt-i-tu' =Aorist = *'fheyt-i-stu' =Imperfective = *'fheyt-i-ttiu' =Pluperfect = *'fheyt-i-lannu' =Future = *'fheyt-i-dolu' =Future Perfect = *'fheyt-i-lettu' Imperative Passive Voice Indicative =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Conditional =Present = =Perfective = =Aorist = =Imperfective = =Pluperfect = =Future = =Future Perfect = Participle =Present = *'fheyt-i-yeu' =Perfective = *'fheyt-i-teyu' =Aorist = *'fheyt-i-steyu' =Imperfective = *'fheyt-i-tteyu' =Pluperfect = *'fheyt-i-layu' =Future = *'fheyt-i-doyu' =Future Perfect = *'fheyt-i-lteyu' Imperative Vocabulary *Swadesh List: Here we give the Swadesh List for Proto-Efhang. Sample *"DUttiUð uwnanUð meððIyang reyfhliuð, teykmeytetum hiy teyliheydunð. Egîregð lesewe hiy gemzeyhemzeyhe, goy tifhinga esheyol honnu Uhodluk Ispeyleydum helnemtetik." **''("All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.")''